The romantics of the last century embraced the heroes
and the architecture of the middle ages.
Walter Scott gave us Ivanhoe and
Pugin spearheaded the Gothic revival in architecture. Our future oriented culture shrinks from the word
"medieval." Undoubtedly, it
was a world very different from our own.
The church-state disputes of this period are fascinating to professional
historians and canonists but seem to be alien and as dry as dust to
contemporary Americans who fail to recognize the same issues as they are played
on the contemporary scene. To make the
richness of the church life of the Middle Ages come alive can be a daunting
task but the film, Becket, based on
the play by Jean Anouilh, fills the bill.
This film possesses all the necessary ingredients to arouse our
interest. The story of a personal
relationship and its intense conflicts is enhanced by the magnificent
performances of Richard Burton and Peter O'Toole, and by spectacular scenery
and skillful cinematography.
Who was Thomas Becket?
Born in 1118, he became Chancellor of England, archbishop of Canterbury,
martyr, and saint. After studying in
Paris, he returned to England in service to the archbishop of Canterbury as
clerk or secretary. (The word clerk at
this time indicated a clergyman). In
1155 he was the king’s chancellor and in 1162, King Henry II (b. 1133, k.
1154-1189) had him made archbishop of Canterbury, a position he accepted only
reluctantly. After a religious
conversion, Thomas adopted an austere life, resigned his post as chancellor,
and was soon in open conflict with the king, especially over the matter of
secular and spiritual jurisdiction.
Charged with treason, Thomas fled England for refuge at the French and
papal courts. In spite of negotiations,
the rift grew wider in 1170 when Henry disregarded Canterbury’s prerogatives
and had his son crowned king by the archbishop of York. A reconciliation was arranged but Thomas
refused to lift the excommunication of episcopal supporters of Henry during the
dispute. Convinced it was their king’s
will, four of Henry’s knights assassinated Thomas in Canterbury Cathedral on
December 29, 1170. Becket was canonized
in 1173. (Becket, St. Thomas, in McBrien, Richard, ed., The Harper Collins Encyclopedia of Catholicism. Harper: San Francisco, 1995, 148-149.)
Like Shakespeare's historical plays, the movie Becket telescopes events and employs
artistic freedom to alter certain details of the events. Although not perfect in every detail, it
presents a fairly accurate rendering of the church-state controversies of
twelfth century England. Becket's
personal pilgrimage culminates in a conversion, a fun-loving courtier is
transformed into an ascetic, the king's servant and boon companion becomes the
king's nemesis and the church's advocate.
He never loses the fervor of a convert, even as he receives lessons in
realpolitik from the French king and court.
Having confronted his king to preserve the rights of the church, he then
encounters a venal papal court without losing his faith in the church it
represents. This complex man becomes a
martyr and is acclaimed a saint, leaving behind the lingering question,
"Did he plan it all that way?"
The solemn excommunication scene, in which Becket
catalogues the woeful consequences, civil and religious, which will befall a
baron who has killed a priest, or any other poor soul so condemned, is a
classic demonstration of the inextricable links of medieval church and
state. It raises the question of whether
or not ,or when, to use such radical remedies and even moves us to ask what are
their effects in the temporal and in the spiritual realms. Becket allows us the
luxury of involving ourselves in church-state battles, conflicts of laws and
theology, as human conflicts of very real persons. Becket helps us to put
flesh on several of those in the realm of the dead and even to identify with
some of their religious and personal dilemmas.
I venture to add that the conversation regarding the proper relation of
church and state, faith and society has not ended in our own country and that
the questions presented in this film can even have contemporary relevance.
The Film
The film, Becket,
is based on Jean Anouilh's play of the same name. Released in the year 1964, it was typical of a number of movies
of the period. The United States had
not begun to go through the tumultuous period of disillusion that resulted in
the demythologizing of its institutions.
The anti-war movement opposed to the Vietnam War and the chaos of
Watergate were in the future.
Hollywood and Broadway still found religious spectacles
and biographical period pieces profitable.
The fifties had given us Quo
Vadis, The Ten Commandments and numerous other multimillion-dollar
productions. Cromwell, Luther, and Becket
came in the early sixties.
Becket has several themes.
It is the story of the friendship between Henry II of England and Thomas
Becket, the close friend whom he creates archbishop. It is the story of the conflict between the native Saxons and the
conquering French Norman class.
Finally, it is a conflict of church and state, man and God.
The Period
The laws of England and other nations of the twelfth
century were often ambiguous. Taxation
was the prerogative of the crown but the compliance of the nobility was helpful,
if not essential, especially after Magna
Carta in 1215. The bishops and the
clergy formed a class unto themselves.
The decrees of various ecumenical and national church councils, and the
legislation of various kingdoms, had progressively given the clergy an
accumulation of rights and privileges that constituted them almost a state
within the state. Chief among these,
the church was exempt from taxation. As
the years passed the church became quite wealthy and its possessions drew the
attention of the monarch, especially when he was in need of funds. Upon request of the monarch, it might make a
voluntary, or not so voluntary, donation to the crown. The clergy were also
exempt from the jurisdiction of the royal courts. They possessed what in canon law is called the privilegium fori, the privilege of the
forum. In all instances, they were to
be tried by church, not by civil courts.
In 1148 the canon law of the Church was codified in the Decretum of Gratian. Secular law was still largely uncodified and
governed by unwritten customs. Thus
there was a wide borderland between cases that belonged to church jurisdiction
and those to which the secular courts could demonstrate their claim. This was one cause of the struggle between
Becket and Henry II over the trial of criminal clergy. The other was the spread of education, which
gave to many men, who had no intention of taking holy orders, the standard of
literacy, which was the test of entering the clergy. Henry was eager to assert the competence of the royal
law-courts. Becket was a strong
supporter of ecclesiastical rights. In
1163, at the Council of Westminster, both sides stated their cases. Henry demanded that criminal clergy,
convicted by church courts, should be handed over to his courts for
punishment. Becket claimed that this
was uncanonical and also inequitable as involving two trials. The constitutions put forward in the next
year at a Council at Clarendon restricted church privileges and jurisdiction.
Becket would not consent to the Clarendon
constitutions. The Council of
Northampton supported the king, but Becket refused to accept its findings in a
spiritual matter - as he held it to be - and appealed to Rome. Peace was arranged and Becket returned in
1170, only to exasperate the king by excommunicating the bishops who had
infringed on the rights of Canterbury in assisting the Archbishop of York in
the coronation of the king’s son.
Coronation was considered the privilege of the Archbishop of
Canterbury. Becket’s action provoked the
king’s hasty exclamation and the too literal interpretation of it by the four
knights;. After Becket’s murder the
king had to abjure the uncanonical provisions of the Constitutions as the price
of the pope’s absolution. He abandoned
the claim to punish criminal clergy and sanctioned the unrestricted right of
appeal to Rome in ecclesiastical cases.
But the king kept jurisdiction in cases over church lands and in the
method of election of bishops.
The church jealously guarded these privileges which it had
by this time assumed and considered them to be rights. Kings saw much of this behavior as violating
their own sovereignty but they and the nobility were constrained by the
spiritual penalties that the church could impose on them.
In the medieval worldview, the earthly kingdom and the
heavenly kingdom were one. What was
"bound on earth was bound in heaven." Spiritual penalties were not to be taken lightly. The declaration on earth of the condemnation
of an individual truly condemned him, possibly for eternity. The spiritual separation from the Body of
Christ also separated him from the body of society on earth.
Before viewing Becket,
read:
The Constitutions of Clarendon
Letter of Pope Alexander III to Thomas Becket
Reference in a good encyclopedia:
Becket, St. Thomas
Canterbury
Church of England
Henry II
History of England
York
And so to our movie.
Before viewing it review the following questions and keep them in mind
as you enjoy Becket.
1. Note the
meeting of the king's council. Is there
a large number of clergy present? Why?
Are they there simply to accede to his demand for taxes?
2. The king
demands taxes. What is the issue? Who is in command? Who has the right to
tax the church?
3. As
Becket is named chancellor, is there discussion of the possible conflict of
interest? Note that a seal ring is a symbol of both civil and religious
offices. Watch how the film uses this
symbolism later on. Was it rare at this time that a cleric be a chancellor or
other high officer of the kingdom? What
class of society was the most educated in this period?
4. How
would you evaluate King Henry's behavior toward the bishops? What does it say about his personal faith?
5. Becket
is an "archdeacon." What is
an archdeacon?
6. The
bishops say they support the king by prayers.
Was it possible for priests and bishops to fight in armies? If so, why?
If not, why not? What is the
canonical legislation regarding clerics bearing arms, then and now?
7. What is
the principle upon which the bishops base their tax exemption?
8. Who is
Gwendolyn? What is her relation to
Becket?
9. Observe
the development of the character of Becket as interpreted by Anouilh. He says "I cannot support the idea of
being loved." There is a certain
amount of psychological interpretation apparent in the film. This is symptomatic of the growing use of
psychology in the interpretation of motives of historical figures. The first such interpretation of a religious
figure was Eric Erickson's psychological biography of Martin Luther.
Follow it during the film.
10. List the
personality traits of Becket and Henry that you observe. Describe the evolution of their relationship.
11. To whom
does Becket owe his loyalty?
12. What is
Becket's concept of honor?
13. Describe
the outward evidence of Becket's conversion.
14. In the
scenes of religious rituals, observe the vestments and comment on the
authenticity of the film's presentation of the medieval form of church ritual.
15. A priest
is tried before a civil court, and then lynched. What are the issues here?
16. Becket
threatens to, and eventually does, excommunicate Lord Gilbert. What are the effects
of excommunication in canon and civil law?
17. Becket
wears the ring containing the "Great Seal of England." What is the significance of a seal in
medieval culture?
18. The most
dramatic scene is the excommunication scene.
The music in the background is the Dies
Irae. Why is the Dies Irae playing? What is the significance of the candles?
19. Becket is
summoned to the king's court. He
appeals to Rome. What is the origin of
the appeal to Rome?
20. What is
an interdict? What are its effects in
medieval civil and canon law? Is such
an ecclesiastical penalty still used today?
21. The king
of France welcomes Becket. What are his
political interests in the conflict between Becket and Henry?
22. Becket is
in Rome. Is the portrayal of the papal
court accurate? Are the costumes
accurate? Did the Pope wear white in
this period? What do you think of the
cardinals?
23. How much
power did the pope actually have? Could
he impose his will on the king of England?
24. What was
Becket's motivation in returning to England?
25. Henry
plans to have his son crowned by the archbishop of York. What is the historical origin of the rivalry between the
dioceses of Canterbury and York?
26. Did Becket seek martyrdom?